Christiaan snouck hurgronje biography of albert einstein

Dutch Orientalist (1857–1936)

Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje
Dutch scholar Snouck Hurgronje.
Born	(1857-02-08)8 February 1857 Oosterhout, Netherlands
Died	26 June 1936(1936-06-26) (aged 79) Leiden, Netherlands
Occupation	Professor, author, secret service agent, colonial advisor
Nationality	Dutch

Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje (Dutch pronunciation:[ˈkrɪstijaːnˈsnukɦʏrˈɣrɔɲə]; 8 February 1857 – 26 June 1936) was a Dutch academic of Oriental cultures and languages and advisor on native development to the colonial government considerate the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).

Born in Oosterhout move 1857, he became a divinity student at Leiden University be sure about 1874. He received his degree at Leiden in 1880 exchange his dissertation 'Het Mekkaansche Feest' ("The Festivities of Mecca"). Unquestionable became a professor at honesty Leiden School for Colonial Urbane Servants in 1881.

Snouck, who was fluent in Arabic, repeat mediation with the Ottoman guru in Jeddah, was examined impervious to a delegation of scholars break Mecca in 1884 and, walk out successfully completion of the inspection, was allowed to commence dinky pilgrimage to the Holy Islamic city of Mecca in 1885. He was one of birth first Western scholars of Adapt cultures to do so.

A pioneering traveler, he was pure rare Western presence in Riyadh, but embraced the culture viewpoint religion of his hosts date passion in such that proscribed successfully gave people the awareness that he had converted dressingdown Islam.^[1] He admitted that powder pretended to be a Islamist as he explained in neat as a pin letter sent to his school friend, Carl Bezold on 18 February 1886 which is compressed archived in Heidelberg University Library.^[2][3] In 1888 he became contributor of the Royal Netherlands Institution of Arts and Sciences.^[4]

In 1889 he became professor of Asiatic at Leiden University and not up to scratch advisor to the Dutch management on colonial affairs.

He wrote more than 1,400 papers interconnect the situation in Atjeh topmost the position of Islam pen the Dutch East Indies, chimpanzee well as on the inhabitants civil service and nationalism.

As the adviser of J. Clumsy. van Heutsz, he took clean up active role in the rearmost part (1898–1905) of the Aceh War (1873–1914). He used government knowledge of Islamic culture figure up devise strategies which significantly helped crush the resistance of honourableness Aceh inhabitants and impose Land colonial rule on them, close a 40-year war with unreliable casualty estimates of between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants dead abide about a million wounded.

His success in the Aceh Contest earned him influence in mixture colonial administration policy throughout ethics rest of the Dutch Respire Indies, however deeming his forewarning insufficiently implemented he returned disapprove of the Netherlands in 1906. Guzzle in the Netherlands Snouck continuing a successful academic career.

Background

When the colony of the Nation East Indies (now: Indonesia) was founded in 1800, the compulsory monotheistic religion of most have a phobia about the indigenous peoples of high-mindedness Indies Archipelago was Islam. Franchise to strong religious syncretism that form of Islam mixed disconnect elements from older religious exercise.

Arab merchants and Indigenous crusader pilgrims returning from Mecca, progressively advocated a more orthodox workingout of Islam. This led cause problems the rise of the immobilization 'santri' variant of Islam. Position nominal Muslims were called "abangan".^[5]

Most Christian churches adhered to leadership guidelines set by the inhabitants government.

The Protestant and Expanded mission showed due diligence hem in following government strategy, but despite that enjoyed considerable autonomy. Moreover, Land colonialism was never grounded dust religious zealotry. However, during position 19th century Christian missionaries became increasingly active, regularly leading cluster clashes or frictions, between Religion and Islam and between representation different Christian denominations.^[5]

The relationship betwixt the government and Islam was uncomfortable.

The Dutch colonial cognition used the principle of splitup of church and state swallow wanted to remain neutral give it some thought religious matters. Nonetheless, equally eminent was the desire to carry on peace and order and Monotheism was an early source resembling inspiration to revolt against honourableness colonial administration.

Social and governmental motives intertwined with religious desires repeatedly exploded into riots don wars like the Padri Armed conflict (1821–1837) and Aceh War (1873–1914) in Sumatra.^[5]

Life in the Nation East Indies

As of 1871, distinction colonial governor-general relied on effect 'advisor for indigenous affairs' end manage these tensions.

Due itch his expertise in Arabic stomach Islam, Prof.Dr. Snouck Hurgronje served in this capacity between 1889 and 1905. His overall help was to intervene as roughly as possible in religious account and allow optimal freedom call up religion. Only manifestations of civic Islam were to be countered. Although his advice was enforced and guided colonial policy aim for years to come, the efflux of Sarekat Islam in 1912 gave rise to the gain victory East Indies political party family unit on Islamic principles.^[5]

Aspiring to improve Dutch colonial policies, Snouck artificial to the Dutch East Indies in 1889.

Snouck was elementary appointed as researcher of Islamic education in Buitenzorg and university lecturer of Arabic in Batavia harvest 1890. Although at first unquestionable was not allowed to go to see Aceh on Sumatra, he excluded offers to return to Continent from the University of Metropolis and Cambridge University.

In 1890 he married the daughter imitation an indigenous nobleman in Ciamis, West Java. Due to rectitude controversy this caused in nobility Netherlands, Snouck called the wedlock a "scientific opportunity" to announce and analyse Islamic wedding ceremonies. Four children were born be different this marriage.

Between 1891 folk tale 1892, Snouck—who was by acquaint with fluent in Acehnese, Malay highest Javanese—finally traveled to Aceh, which was devastated by the nonstop Aceh War.

Under the title "Haji Abdul Ghaffar", he serve as a relationship of trust look at religious elements of the region's population. In his Report hack the religious-political situation in Aceh, Snouck strongly opposed the transfix of military terror tactics bite the bullet the Acehnese and instead advocated well-organized systematic espionage and charming the support of aristocratic elites.

He, however, did identify consider radical Muslim scholars (Ulama) meander would only succumb to public image of force.^[6]

In 1898 Snouck became Colonel Van Heutsz's closest doctor in "pacifying" Aceh, and her majesty advice was instrumental in reversing Dutch fortune in ending birth protracted Aceh War.

The pleasure between Heutsz and Snouck debauched when Heutsz proved unwilling fight back implement Snouck's ideal for emblematic ethical and enlightened administration. Pathway 1903, Snouck married another autochthonous woman, with whom he confidential a son in 1905. Disillusioned with colonial policies, he requited to the Netherlands the incoming year to continue a work out academic career.^[7]

Snouck was a partner of the Arab Grand Mufti of Batavia, Habib Usman containerful Yahya, who issued fatwa yearning support the Dutch war be drawn against Aceh.

Sojourn in Mecca (1884–1885)

In the foreword to Snouck Hurgronje's treatise Mekka in the Run Part of the 19th Century,^[8] we come across the following:

"In 1884–1885 he [i.e. Snouck Hurgronje] had an opportunity authorization stay for a year mark out Arabia, about half the best in Mekka, where he cursory as a student of Prophet learning, and half the era in Jeddah.

The result have fun his experiences is given bill a work in German tutor in two volumes, under the give a ring "Mekka", published in 1888–1889. Wreath chief object was not obviate study the Hajj, an concrete knowledge of which is smooth to obtain by reading wearisome of the innumerable pilgrims' handbooks (manâsik) than by attending honesty ceremonies in the fearful party gathering yearly in the Immaterial Town, in the Valley recompense Mina and on the Flat of Arafât, but rather understanding become intimately acquainted with dignity daily life of the Mekkans and of the thousands forget about Muhammadans from all parts racket the world living in Mekka for material or spiritual purposes".

In an article published in July 1929,^[9]Arthur Jeffery elaborates further:

"Our standard scientific work on Riyadh and the pilgrimage we be under an obligation to the next Christian haji on our roll, Prof.

Proverb. Snouck Hurgronje, the Dutch Orientalist, who still lives at City, though retired from his Seat. His treatise on the foundation and nature of the exploration was written in 1880, deed in 1885, after having debilitated five months in the Country Consulate at Jiddah, he journeyed to Mecca, where for sise months he lived as keen student of the Koran, direct gathered the material for enthrone monumental work on that movement.

As Burckhardt had been in the main interested in the topography show consideration for the city, and the quest ceremony, Snouck Hurgronje interested yourself particularly in a social bone up on of the Meccan community, extremity so complete is his prepare that he has left delay to later writers save resist note the changes made strong passing years.

"Hurgronje seems to plot enjoyed the freest intercourse tie in with all strata of society layer Mecca, and with an plentiful scholarly preparation for his commission has been able to found Meccan social life a right of living interest to stealthy.

No other writer has tolerable clearly pictured the condition ingratiate yourself a society which is welded from an unusually varied farrago of nationalities, and which has been affected by the superstitions and prejudices of them visit. His picture of the distinct immorality of the city remains blacker even than Burckhardt's, other is the evidence of precise witness who certainly cannot the makings accused of prejudice against Islam".

The fact that Snouck Hurgronje prostrate his time in Mecca makeover a convert to Islam has been criticized by some style "treachery and knavery." For occurrence the right-wing late Pakistani civilian servant and Ambassador of Pakistan to the Netherlands in 1962, Qudrat Ullah Shahab, goes like this far in his autobiography^[10] chimpanzee to insinuate:

"A clear living example of a group of Nation Orientalists which, through their erroneous statements and thoughts in representation garb of knowledge and erudition, played a conspicuous role sieve distorting the features of Mohammedanism and Muslims, in causing prejudgment against Islam in the low down of the Westerners and din in serving as an authority demand some amongst the Muslims who suffer from inferiority complex, decay that of C.

Snouck Hurgronje. This gentleman was a senior lecturer of Oriental studies at Metropolis University. In 1884 he all in six months in Jeddah current then went on to support in Mecca for six mega months by adopting a cooked-up Islamic name. The entry carryon Non-Muslims is prohibited within illustriousness precincts of the Haram [Mecca].

Yet the worthy Professor flybynight there under the false conceal of a Muslim and unruffled his German book "Mekka" (2 volumes) on the way stencil life of the Meccan Muslims. He had already authored well-organized Dutch book on the Hadj called 'Het Mekkaansche Feest'. Representation is an exercise in impracticality to seek good will, consideration and fairness in the form of those who set draw up to to explore the ceremonies light Islam and the conditions show signs the Muslims, wrapped in nobility garb of treachery and corruption.

Such writings have resulted story creating the Dutch mental-image rule Muslims as poly-haremic, licentious, uncivilised and mis-managers."

According to L.I. Graf,^[11] there was no other right lane for Snouck Hurgronje to cast doubt on admitted to Mecca without obsequious a practicing Muslim:

"Wel bestond voor SH natuurlijk geen andere mogelijkheid toegang tot Mekka wideranging krijgen dan door den moslims een moslim te worden."

i.e.

"However for Snouck Hurgronje, of taken as a whole, there was no other place to gain access to Riyadh than by becoming a Muslim"

David Samuel Margoliouth, reminding people work out the predicament of non-Muslim observers of the Meccan annual quest in the nineteenth century, arranges the following remark:^[12]

"It is designated that the number of rank former [read: Europeans] who own acquire succeeded in witnessing the trek and returning to tell distinction tale is small compared break that of those who be endowed with sacrificed their lives in excellence attempt; and those who be endowed with accomplished the task safely possess in most cases done good by the exercise of giant cunning and ingenuity."

This is spoken for by Arthur Jeffery in followers terms:^[13]

"Reliable authorities have told plentiful in regard to Mecca, go wool-gathering hardly a pilgrimage season passes without somebody being done address death on the suspicion medium being a Christian in disguise."

To further add to the issue of Hurgronje's cultural appropriation seal immorally gain access to undiluted sacred site to perpetuate inhabitants interests, was his own bigot remarks, "he (i.e.

the orientalist) may have as much accord for Islam and its believers as he likes, but overbearing of the time his assurances will be met with harbour suspicions abou in this remote place (Mecca) with the most narrow end minds".^[14] Despite adopting the Arabian name, "Abdul-Gaffar" Hurgronje still difficult the caucasity to consider Arabs as narrow-minded.^[14]

Dar al-Islam Vs.

Express al-Harb

After the Indian Mutiny reminiscent of 1857 in which Muslims remind you of India played a predominant carve up, the British tasked a courteous servant, William Wilson Hunter, pre-empt submit a report on willy-nilly the Indian Muslims were "bound in Conscience to rebel despoil the Queen"?

W.W. Hunter accomplished his report which subsequently became an influential work titled The Indian Musalmans. In it, W.W. Hunter advanced the pragmatic property value that a religious argument, annihilate fatwa, could be used harvest favor of Her Majesty's Management as much as against blow.

He wrote:^[15]"The Law Doctors round Northern Hindustan set out uncongenial tacitly assuming that India recapitulate a Country of the Adversary [Dar al-Harb], and deduce thence that religious rebellion is uncalled for.

The Calcutta Doctors [i.e. Islamic clerics] declare India resolve be a Country of Mohammadanism [Dar al-Islam], and conclude ensure religious rebellion is therefore shady. This result must be acknowledged as alike satisfactory to nobleness well-to-do Muhammadans, whom it saves from the peril of conducive to the Fanatic Camp prophecy our Frontier, and gratifying nick ourselves, as proving that primacy Law and the Prophets glare at be utilized on the margin of loyalty as well likewise on the side of sedition."

Snouck Hurgronje, however, did not harmonize with W.

Hunter's conclusion. Noteworthy was of the view focus close acquaintance with Islamic ecclesiastical literature on the issue director Dar al-Islam Vs. Dar al-Harb did not warrant Hunter's matteroffactness. He wrote:^[16]

"Théoriquement, on compte aussi comme appartenant au « Dâr al-lslâm » des pays dépendant autrefois simple la domination musulmane, quoique administrés aujourd'hui par des non-Musulmans. C'est ainsi que les territoires stilbesterol Indes Britanniques et Néerlandaises, habités par des croyants, sont considérés comme territoires de lslâm. C'est à tort que des hommes tels que W. Hunter matter d'autres personnages politiques anglais, s'en sont réjouis, s'imaginant que cette doctrine donnait un caractère base séditions illégales, aux insurrections nonsteroidal Musulmans des Indes Britanniques contre l'autorité anglaise. Vaine illusion! Si la doctrine rangeait ces colonies orientales dans le territoire snuggle down la guerre, comme c'est testy cas pour l'Angleterre et bind Pays-Bas, la règle légale, qui n'est d'ailleurs pas sans exceptions, ne permettrait aux Musulmans disintegrate s'y livrer à des actes belliqueux qu'avec l'autorisation du menial de la communauté musulmane. Dans le territoire de l'Islâm même, le souverain non-musulman est strife anomalie on ne peut precious supporter qu'aussi longtemps qu'on recognize impuissant à réagir. Tout pays qui se trouve en dehors des limites du Dâr al-lslâm est territoire de Guerre sponsor son entier et cela veut dire: destiné à être transformé par la force en territoire de l'Islâm, aussitôt que lack of discipline circonstances le permettent. Pour insubordination véritables païens, la soumission cut back peut se faire que sous la forme de conversion à la foi en Allah side of the road son Prophète. Ceux qui confessent un culte reconnu par l'Islâm peuvent se borner à reconnaître l'autorité de l'État musulman, pretty good gouvernement suprême."

"In theory, at hand are also countries belonging bring under control the 'Dar al-Islam' [House female Islam] which are administered at the moment by non-Muslims, yet which were historically dependent on Moslem dominance. That is to say nobility territories of the British subject Dutch Indies, inhabited by Monotheism believers, which are considered similarly territories of Islam [Dar al-Islam]. Men such as W. Orion and other English political personalities, abounding in rejoice, were demand fact mistaken to imagine become absent-minded this doctrine bestowed the club together of illegal sedition upon honesty insurrection of Muslims against rectitude English in British India. Put in order vain illusion! If doctrine inaccurate these eastern colonies in primacy Territory of War [Dar al-Harb] under the rule of a-okay Protectorate, as is the suitcase with colonial India under England and colonial Indonesia under illustriousness Netherlands, the statutory rule, which is not without exceptions, would allow Muslims to engage cut warlike activities only with description permission of the leader forestall the Muslim community. In character territory of Islam itself, goodness non-Muslim rule is an kink which should be suffered nonpareil so long as Islam evenhanded powerless to react. Djavan gloria pires biography Every native land which lies outside the borders of Dar al-Islam is Habitat of War [Dar al-Harb] scope its entirety and this means: destined to be transformed exceed force into the territory receive Islâm, as soon as lot permit. For true pagans, deference can only be made sky the form of conversion signify the faith in Allah advocate his Prophet. Those who unburden a religion recognized by Islâm shall be confined to usage the authority of the Moslem State as the supreme government."

Jihād

In January 1915 Hurgronje in print the article "Holy War idea in Germany" in the major Dutch journal De Gids.

Nobility article is a polemic combat European culture that condemns rendering moral outrages of World Enmity I. Hurgronje blamed Germany settle down its cadre of orientalist scholars for the declaration of Pains made by the Ottoman create in 1914. He accused rendering German orientalists of undermining goodness goals of modernizing Islamic concert party.

According to Hurgronje the contest was a consequence of augmentation beyond the control of Muslims. He argues that Muslims catch unawares capable of progress and ditch he had in common relieve "the Turk" the ideas senior "religious peace and freedom mention thought". He saw Jihad monkey a medieval phenomenon and lapse the 1908 Revolution had concluded this medievalism.

The "fetish exhaust the Caliphate" (and the connected Jihad), he says, experiences orderly revival only under European power. His friendship with Carl Heinrich Becker who was attacked reclaim the article was severely apprehensive as a result.^[17]

He writes:

It has been the fate be successful Islam that this doctrine panic about the jihād or holy armed conflict, the application of which previously contributed so much to sheltered greatness and renown, should encroach modern times have set nobility greatest difficulties in its way.

So long as not adjourn single Moslim teacher of thoughtfulness dreams of regarding these [Islamic] laws of the middle immortality as abrogated, while a aggregate proportion of the [Islamic] wind up exhibit the strongest inclination face up to restore the conditions which prevailed some centuries ago, so far ahead does it remain impossible, notwithstanding anxious we may be add up to do so, to omit depiction jihād from our calculations in the way that forming a judgment on class relation of Islam to show aggression religions...

The way in which the doctrine of jihād assessment interpreted by the Mohammedan workers and embraced in less accurate form by the mass help the people, furnishes an superior indication of the progress renounce Islam has made at brutish given time or place advance this direction, whither it enquiry being impelled with increasing exact by the political conditions look up to modern days.

In the make your mind up it must yield entirely surpass that force; it must face to face abandon the tenets of jihād and abide by the shrewdly harmless doctrine respecting the latest days when a Messiah be disappointed a Mahdī will come look after reform the world. Then disposition Islam differ from other creeds only in so far likewise it upholds another catechism deed another ritual as the capital whereby eternal salvation may hair won.

But before that short holiday arrives the last political redoubt of Islam will probably put on been brought under European affect and all less civilized Mohammedan peoples will have been grateful to submit to the jail of a strong European government.^[18]

Final years

Back in the Netherlands Snouck accepted several professorships at Metropolis University, including Arabic language, Acehnese language and Islamic education.

Closure continued to produce numerous display academic studies and became high-mindedness international authority on all try relating to the Arab replica and Muslim religion. His pundit advice on urgent issues was often sought after by pristine European countries and much chide his work was already bring into being translated into a.o.

German, Country and English. In 1925 earth was even offered a armchair at the prestigious National Afrasian University in Cairo, the standardize university of the Middle Nosh-up. In 1927 he stepped curfew as Rector magnificus and lecturer, but stayed active as guide up to his death notes Leiden in 1936.^[19]

During and back his academic tenure Snouck remained a progressive colonial adviser increase in intensity critic.

His reformist vision accede to solve the challenges of trim lasting relationship between the Holland and the Indies was family circle on the principle of swirl. To achieve this future union and end the existing dualist governance of the Dutch Respire Indies, he advocated increased selfsufficiency through western education of illustriousness indigenous governing elite.

In 1923 he called for: "Vigorous meliorate of the constitution of prestige Dutch East Indies" where "one has to break with distinction concept of moral and egghead inferiority of the natives" gleam allow them "free and agent democratic bodies and optimal autonomy". Conservative elements in the Holland reacted by financing an variant school for Colonial Civil Assist in Utrecht.

^[19]

Sources

The main facts on Snouck Hurgonje's studies ahead colonial policy relating to Religion are available in the ledger of the 'Ministry of Colonies' managed by the ‘National Archives’ in The Hague. The chronology includes all decisions by description governors-general, all Minister of Colonies mail reports, and all administration laws and regulations.

Additionally record is available in the Bahasa National Archives in Jakarta weather at the ‘Royal Institute censure Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies’ (KITLV) in Leiden and birth Leiden University Library.^[5]

The archives, mail and photos of Snouck Hurgronje are available at Leiden Institution of higher education Library and digitally accessible change direction Digital Collections^[20] Some of jurisdiction photographs now form part time off the Khalili Collection of Trip and the Arts of Pilgrimage.^[21][22]

The Leiden University Fund (Leids Universiteits Fonds ^[nl]), dedicated to university alter is located at the 'Snouck Hurgronjehuis', Snouck's home donated rear the university.

Gallery

• Muslim pilgrims overrun Palembang, Sumatra on their run off to Mecca. Photographed by Snouck Hurgronje at the Dutch Embassy in Jeddah, 1884.

• Muslim pilgrims do too much Ambon, Kai and Banda islet, Maluku Islands on their opening to Mecca. Photographed by Snouck Hurgronje at the Dutch Ministry in Jeddah, 1884.

• Muslim pilgrims unapproachable Mandailing, Sumatra on their permit to Mecca.

  Photographed by Snouck Hurgronje at the Dutch Envoys in Jeddah, 1884.

• A Meccan seller (right) and his Circassian servant. Entitled, 'Vornehmner Kaufmann mit seinem cirkassischen Sklaven' [Distinguished merchant innermost his circassian slave], 1888.

Works

References

Notes vital citations

Bibliography

• Ibrahim, Alfian. "Aceh and representation Perang Sabil." Indonesian Heritage: Prematurely Modern History.

  Vol. 3, discontented. Anthony Reid, Sian Jay be first T. Durairajoo. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet, 2001. 132–133

• Reid, Anthony (2005). An Indonesian Frontier: Acehnese & Other Histories of Sumatra. Singapore: Singapore University Press.
  Bram stoker biography video

  ISBN .

• Vickers, Physiologist (2005). A History of Extra Indonesia. New York: Cambridge Dogma Press. pp. 10–13. ISBN .
• Le tour fall to bits monde – Nouveau journal stilbesterol voyages "Voyage à la Mecque" Revue N° 1675 published 18 February 1893 by Hachette Paris

External links